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20, 1985, https://www.nytimes.com/1985/10/20/magazine/a-new-attack-on-alcoholism.html; Sandra Blakeslee, “Scientists Find Key Biological Causes of Alcoholism,” New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/14/science/scientists-find-key-biological-causes-of-alcoholism.html.

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Andrew Purvis, “Medicine: DNA and the Desire to Drink,” Time, April 30, 1990, http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,969965,00.html.

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Stanton Peele, “Second Thoughts about a Gene for Alcoholism,” Atlantic, August 1990, https://www.peele.net/lib/atlcgene.html. См. также Gabor Maté, “It’s Not in the Genes,” в кн. In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 2010), 211–231, где более подробно обсуждаются генетические теории.

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К примеру, в 1989 году вышла книга Нэн Робертсон «Выздоровление» («Getting Better”), в которой почти вся глава о медицинских исследованиях, носящая название «Болезнь», посвящена тому, что генетика якобы подтверждает понимание зависимости как болезни. Nan Robertson, Getting Better: Inside Alcoholics Anonymous (New York: William Morrow, 1988), 183–209.

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William R. Miller, David J. Atencio, “Free Will as a Proportion of Variance,” в кн. Are We Free? Psychology and Free Will, ed. John Baer, James C. Kaufman, Roy F. Baumeister (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 275–295.

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A. Agrawal et al., “The Genetics of Addiction – a Translational Perspective,” Translational Psychiatry 2, no. 7 (July 2012): e140, https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2012.54; Mary-Anne Enoch, “Genetic Influences on the Development of Alcoholism,” Current Psychiatry Reports 15, no. 11 (November 2013): 412, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920–013–0412–1; Dana B. Hancock et al., “Human Genetics of Addiction: New Insights and Future Directions,” Current Psychiatry Reports 20, no. 2 (March 2018): 8, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920–018–0873–3; Richard C. Crist, Benjamin C. Reiner, Wade H. Berrettini, “A Review of Opioid Addiction Genetics,” в кн. “Genetics,” special issue, Current Opinion in Psychology 27 (June 2019): 31–35, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.07.014.

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Robert Plomin, цит. по Charles C. Mann, “Behavioral Genetics in Transition: A Mass of Evidence – Animal and Human – Shows That Genes Influence Behavior. But the Attempt to Pin Down Which Genes Influence Behaviors Has Proved Frustratingly Difficult,” Science 264, no. 5166 (June 17, 1994): 1686–1690, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.8209246.

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Keith Humphreys et al., “Brains, Environments, and Policy Responses to Addiction,” Science 356, no. 6344 (June 2017): 1237–1238, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan0655.

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Friedrich-Wilhelm Kielhorn, “The History of Alcoholism: Bruühl-Cramer’s Concepts and Observations,” Addiction 91, no. 1 (January 1996): 123–124.

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William B. Carpenter, On the Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors, in Health and Disease (Philadelphia, 1855), 45, https://books.google.com/books?id=V-sPAAAAYAAJ; Thomas F. Babor and Richard J. Lauerman, “Classification and Forms of Inebriety: Historical Antecedents of Alcoholic Typologies,” в кн. Recent Developments in Alcoholism, vol. 4, ed. Marc Galanter (New York: Plenum, 1986), 113–144. Бабор обнаружил целых 39 различных систем классификации, опубликованных с 1850 по 1941 год.

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E. M. Jellinek, The Disease Concept of Alcoholism (New York: Hillhouse Press, 1960), 36; Penny Booth Page, “E. M. Jellinek and the Evolution of Alcohol Studies: A Critical Essay,” Addiction 92, no. 12 (December 1997): 1619–1637, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360–0443.1997.tb02882.x; John F. Kelly, “E. M. Jellinek’s Disease Concept of Alcoholism,” Addiction 114, no. 3 (September 2018): 555–559, https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14400.

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Thomas F. Babor, Raul Caetano, “Subtypes of Substance Dependence and Abuse: Implications for Diagnostic Classification and Empirical Research,” Addiction 101, no. S1 (2006): 104–110, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360–0443.2006.01595.x.

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Victor M. Hesselbrock, Michie N. Hesselbrock, “Are There Empirically Supported and Clinically Useful Subtypes of Alcohol Dependence?” Addiction 101, no. S1 (2006): 97–103, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360–0443.2006.01596.x; Lia Nower et al., “Subtypes of Disordered Gamblers: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions,” Addiction 108, no. 4 (January 3, 2013): 789–98, https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12012.

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Timothy D. Brewerton, Kathleen Brady, “The Role of Stress, Trauma, and PTSD in the Etiology and Treatment of Eating Disorders, Addictions, and Substance Use Disorders,” in Eating Disorders, Addictions and Substance Use Disorders, ed. Timothy D. Brewerton, Amy Baker Dennis (New York: Springer, 2014), 379–404.

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Lorenzo Leggio et al., “Typologies of Alcohol Dependence: From Jellinek to Genetics and Beyond,” Neuropsychology Review 19, no. 1 (2009): 115–129, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065–008–9080-z; Mark Griffiths, “A ‘Components’ Model of Addiction within a Biopsychosocial Framework,” Journal of Substance Use 10, no. 4 (2005): 191–197, https://doi.org/10.1080/14659890500114359; Mark D. Griffiths and Michael Larkin. “Conceptualizing Addiction: The Case for a ‘Complex Systems’ Account,” Addiction Research & Theory 12, no. 2 (2004): 99–102, https://doi.org/10.1080/1606635042000193211; James MacKillop, Lara A. Ray, “The Etiology of Addiction,” в кн. Integrating Psychological and Pharmacological Treatments for Addictive Disorders, 1st ed., ed. James MacKillop et al., (New York: Routledge, 2017), 32–53, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315683331–2; Matt Field, Nick Heather, Reinout W. Wiers, “Indeed, Not Really a Brain Disorder: Implications for Reductionist Accounts of Addiction,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 42 (2019): e9, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X18001024.

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Nick Haslam, “Psychiatric Categories as Natural Kinds: Essentialist Thinking about Mental Disorder,” Social Research 67, no. 4 (Winter 2000); Peter Zachar, Kenneth S. Kendler, “Psychiatric Disorders: A Conceptual Taxonomy,” American Journal of Psychiatry 164, no. 4 (April 2007): 557–565, https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2007.164.4.557; Kathryn Tabb, “Psychiatric Progress and the Assumption of Diagnostic Discrimination,” Philosophy of Science 82, no. 5 (December 2015): 1047–1058, https://doi.org/10.1086/683439.

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Howard J. Shaffer et al., “Toward a Syndrome Model of Addiction: Multiple Expressions, Common Etiology,” Harvard Review of Psychiatry 12, no. 6 (2004): 367–374, https://doi.org/10.1080/10673220490905705; Paige M. Shaffer and Howard J. Shaffer, “Reconsidering Addiction as Syndrome” in Pickard and Ahmed, eds., Handbook of Philosophy and Science of Addiction, 106.

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К такому выводу исследователь Джордж Вейллант пришел в 1995 году, переосмыслив десятилетия собственных исследований естественной истории алкоголизма. Он признал, что алкоголизм не является болезнью в строгом значении этого слова, в том смысле, что алкоголика невозможно отделить от остальных людей, что это состояние не вызывается четким набором биологических факторов, однако он утверждал, что понятие болезни тем не менее может быть полезно в определенных целях, если не воспринимать его слишком серьезно. «Как