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43. Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 32–5.

44. Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 121, 123; Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart’”, p. 586.

45. Münz, Führer durch die Behörden und Organisationen, pp. 6–8.

46. Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 50–51, 56–63.

47. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 284–91; Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, pp. 256–7; see too I. Tirado, ‘The Komsomol and the Bright Socialist Future’, in C. Kuhr-Korolev, S. Plaggenborg and M. Wellmann (eds) Sowjetjugend 1917–

1941; Generation zwischen Revolution und Resignation (Essen, 2001), pp. 217–32.

48. G. Kinz Der Bund Deutscher Mädel: Ein Beitrag zur ausserschulisch en Mädchenerziehung im Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt am Main, 1990), pp. 3–12, 25; C. Schubert-Weller Hitler-Jugend: Vom ‘Jungsturm Adolf Hitler’ zur Staatsjugend des Dritten Reiches (Weinheim, 1993), pp. 13–15, 33–4.

49. H. Vorländer Die NSV: Darstellung und Dokumentation einer nationalisozialistischen Organisation (Boppard am Rhein, 1988), pp. 1–14, 96; J. Stcphcnson The Nazi Organisation of Women (London, 1981), pp. 50–55, 140.

50. Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, p. 13.

51. E. van Ree ‘Stalin’s Organic Theory of the Party’, Russian Review, 52 (1993), p. 54.

52. S. Allan Comrades and Citizens: Soviet People (London, 1938), pp. 88–9, 94–5.

53. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 260–61; Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule, pp. 220–22.

54. Allan, Comrades and Citizens, pp. 257–9.

55. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule, p. 230; S. Pons ‘Stalinism and Party Organisation (1933–1948)’, inj. Channon (ed.) Politics, Society and Stalinism in the USSR (London, 1998), pp. 96–7.

56. D. M. McKale The Nazi Party Courts: Hitler’s management of confl ict in his Movement 1921–1945 (Lawrence, Kans., 1974), pp. 77–8, 123.

57. McKale, Nazi Party Courts, p. 55.

58. McKale, Nazi Party Courts, p. 22–3.

59. McKale, Nazi Party Courts, pp. 144–5, 164, 178–80; M. Moll, ‘Steuerungsinstrument im “Ämterchaos”? Die Tagungen der Reichs-und Gauleiter der NSDAP’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 49 (2001), pp. 236–8.

60. Allan, Comrades and Citizens, p. 88.

61. E. P. Mickiewicz, Soviet Political Schools: the Communist Party Adult Instruction System (New Haven, Conn., 1967), pp. 3–9,

89–101; M. David-Fox Revolution of the Mind: Higher Learning among the Bolsheviks, 1918–1929 (Ithaca, NY, 1997), pp. 84–7; T. Kirstein, ‘Das sowjetische Parteischulsystem’, in B. Meissner, G. Brunner and R. Löwenthal (eds) Einparteisystem und bürokratische Herrschaft in der Sowjetunion (Cologne, 1978), pp. 204–16.

62. Orlow, Nazi Party: II, pp. 188–92; Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, p. 589.

63. Schubert-Weller, Hitler-Jugend, pp. 182–3; on selection and admission see the testimony of P. Peterson in J. Steinhoff, P. Pechel and D. Showalter (eds) Voices of the Third Reich: an Oral History (Washington, DC, 1989), pp. 8–9.

64. Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, pp. 79–80; Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, p. 586; M. Voslensky Nomenklatura: Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class (London, 1984), pp. 48–9.

65. Allan, Comrades and Citizens, p. 242.

66. Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, p. 589.

67. Gill, Rules of the Communist Party, pp. 165–6.

68. Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, pp. 581–3; Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 104–5; Stephenson, Nazi Organisation of Women, p. 155; L. Pine ‘Creating Conformity: the Training of Girls in the Bund Deutscher Mädel’, European History Quarterly, 33 (2003), pp. 367–85.

69. Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, pp. 590–95; J. Noakes (ed.) Nazism 1919–1945: a Documentary Reader: Volume 4 (Exeter, 1998), pp. 96–100, ‘Service Instructions for Block Leaders. 1 June 1944’.

70. Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 104–5, 191.

71. D. Rebentisch ‘Die “politische Beurteilung” als Herrschaftsinstrument der NSDAP’, in D. Peukert and J. Reulecke (eds) Die Reihen fast geschlossen: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alltags unterm Nationalsozialismus (Wuppertal, 1981), pp. 107–28; Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 269–70.

72. Rebentisch, ‘Die “politische Beurteilung” ‘, p. 114.

73. Rebentisch, ‘Die “politische Beurteilung”’, pp. 108, 117–18.

74. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 282–3.

75. S. Labin, Stalin’s Russia (London, 1949), p. 149; Tirado, The Komsomol’, pp. 220–22.

76. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 153.

77. Boterbloem, Life and Death under Stalin, p. 125.

78. A. Smith I Was a Soviet Worker (London, 1937), p. 242.

79. Noakes, Nazism: Volume 4, pp. 97–8.

80. Vorländer, Die NSV: Dokumente, pp. 53–4.

81. G. Miller-Kipp (ed.) ‘Auch Du gehörst dem Führer’: Die Geschichte des Bundes Deutscher Mädel in Quellen und Dokumenten (Munich, 2001), p. 62.

82. See for example C. Arbogast Herrschaftsinstanzen der württembergischen NSDAP: Funktion, Sozialprofi l und Lebenswege einer regionalen NS-Elite 1920–1960 (Munich, 1998), pp. 116–22.

83. On the development of German bureaucracy J. Caplan ‘Profession as Vocation: The German Civil Service’, in G. Cocks and K. Jarausch (eds) German Professions, 1800–1950 (Oxford, 1990), pp. 163–82.

84. T. H. Rigby ‘Staffi ng USSR Incorporated: The Origins of the Nomenklatura System’, Soviet Studies, 40 (1988), pp. 526–30.

85. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 50; Rigby, ‘Staffi ng USSR Incorporated’, pp. 531–3.

86. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 50.

87. R. Koshar Social Life, Local Politics, and Nazism: Marburg 1880–1935 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1986), pp. 247–50.

88. J. H. Grill The Nazi Movement in Baden 1920–1945 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1983), pp. 247–8, 257, 265.

89. H. Fenske Bürokratie in Deutschland von späten Kaiserreich bis zur Gegenwart (Berlin, 1985), pp. 40–43.

90. Fenske, Bürokratie in Deutschland, pp. 44, 48; M. Broszat The Hitler State: the foundation and development of the internal structure of the Third Reich (London, 1981), pp. 242–3.

91. Orlow, Nazi Party: II, pp. 226–7; H. Mommsen Beamtentum in Dritten Reich: mit ausgewählten Quellen zur nationalsozialistischen Beamtenpolitik (Stuttgart, 1966), pp. 103–4.

92. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 234–5.

93. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, p. 195.

94. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 213, 215.